Ch1. What Is Instructional Design (Notes)

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Instructional Design

Instructional design focuses on solving problems and improving performance by defining the problem first and then determining what knowledge and skills are needed to solve it. This contrasts with a subject-matter expert’s approach, which often starts with content. 

Instructional design is a systematic process that incorporates learning theories, information technology, and educational research. It’s about applying a scientific approach to creating instructional material based on sound practices and research. 

Making Instructional Design Intro

Key aspects of instructional design include identifying the performance problem and never assuming that instruction is the only answer. It involves a critical approach that asks what information is necessary for the course, what should be included, and how the course aligns with the overall learning outcomes. 

Factors influencing the design include:

  • Student readiness levels.
  • Appropriate instructional strategies.
  • Learner characteristics.
  • Necessary resources and support for successful learning.
  • Methods for measuring achievement of objectives.
  • Revisions if the program doesn’t meet expectations. 

According to the text, if instruction is not the sole answer, the alternative answers could involve various other interventions based on the identified performance problem. These might include changes to the learning environment, resource allocation, learner support systems, policy modifications, or even alterations to assessment methods. 

The instructional design process involves analyzing and identifying the root causes of performance problems and determining the most effective solutions, which may extend beyond traditional instruction. 

  • The college professor focuses on listing the content that needs to be communicated to students, including terms, concepts, and principles.
  • On the other hand, the instructional designer in industry emphasizes starting by determining if the problem is instructional and if instruction will help solve it, then listing the skills and knowledge that need to be developed through the instruction. 

It also introduces the notion that instructional design can be viewed differently by different individuals and that starting points in the planning process can vary. For example, one might focus on the outcomes to be achieved, while another might start with the questions that need to be addressed to meet those outcomes. 

Difference between education and training: Both are concerned with learning but differ in formality, scope, and objectives. 

  • Education is broad, covering a range of subjects intended to prepare an individual as a contributing member of society.
  • Training, in contrast, often focuses on specific skills and knowledge for particular tasks. 

Furthermore, the discussion points out that formal education has a set structure and timeframe, and it mentions how the emphasis on student performance in recent education has shifted, with programs more likely to be defined by benchmarks or standards rather than by textbook content. This reflects a move towards outcomes-based education, where the goals and achievements are clearly outlined and measured. 

Human Performance Technology

(Human Performance Improvement)

Relationship between instructional design and human performance technology (HPT), also known as human performance improvement. HPT is an applied field that aims to maximize the valued achievements within work settings by focusing on “maximizing the valued performances of people within work settings” (Stolovitch & Keeps, 1999, p. 4). It involves a strong emphasis on front-end analysis to identify and solve performance problems, often considering non-training interventions as a solution. 

The text explains that a performance technologist takes a broader perspective than a traditional trainer or instructional designer by potentially incorporating non-training solutions like ergonomic adjustments, redesigning workstations, or creating job aids, which can be training or non-training interventions. 

Furthermore, instructional design is highlighted as an essential element within HPT, which overlaps with the role of an instructional designer. The instructional designer or performance technologist is expected to have knowledge about human performance and instructional design and to provide interventions that address performance problems with essential skills for developing and using electronic performance support systems (EPSS). 

The section concludes with the mention of instructional design’s application in various contexts, emphasizing its significance in business and government sectors. It references substantial investments made by corporations in employee training, underscoring the financial importance and commitment to instructional design and performance improvement initiatives. 

Training in business and government four broad areas: 

  1. Technical training: Involves developing materials that focus on repairing a piece of equipment, performing an accounting audit, or learning new software.
  2. Soft-skill training: Covers interpersonal communication skills such as building teams or working at help desks to solve customer or employee problems.
  3. Management and supervisory training: Focuses on training managers and supervisors on how to assess and correct employee performance and behavioral issues.
  4. Sales training: Encompasses techniques and product knowledge training. 

The instructional design process, foundational premises:

Systematic Procedure

Premise 1: The instructional design process is systematic and requires attention to both the systematic procedure and specificity for each detail within the plan. This includes:

  • setting strategies with clear goals and
  • treating each element of the plan with mental effort and precision,
  • ensuring all actions are aligned with the instructional objective that addresses the performance problem.

If it is so systematic how is it that it has no arrows and can be used as the designer needs to? 

Problem – Solution

Premise 2: The process begins by identifying an instructional problem. Instructional designers first determine if a performance issue exists and whether it can be effectively addressed through instruction. Before designing the instruction, it is crucial to define the need by identifying the performance problem and then determining what knowledge and skills are required to resolve it. 

Attention to detail is emphasized as critical for the success of any instructional design work, implying that systematic procedures and a focus on specifics enable the creation of effective instruction. 

Design Elements Stay with Designers

Premise 3: An instructional design plan is primarily for use by the designer and planning team. It clarifies that not all details developed during the design process (like needs analysis and content sequencing) are meant to be used directly by learners, such as in a study guide. The elements in the design documents are for managing the development of instruction, and while these elements may not be presented in their final form to learners, they are essential for the design team.

 Satisfactory Achievement

Premise 4: While planning, every effort should be made to provide a satisfactory achievement for the learner rather than minimal achievement. This is supported by research suggesting that nearly all students can achieve the required outcomes if the instruction is suitably adapted to their needs.

Supported by very old research from Bloom… 1974 😦 

Input Quality = Output Quality

Premise 5: The success of the instructional product is dependent on the accuracy of the information flowing into the design process. Effective instruction requires accurate identification of the performance problem, target audience, and necessary information from subject matter experts. Appropriate instructional strategies must be selected, and accurate information is crucial for designing effective and efficient instruction. 

Focus on the Individual

Premise 6: The instructional design process focuses on the individual rather than the content. This emphasizes the importance of designing instruction that meets the needs of each learner, rather than simply covering the content. 

These premises emphasize the importance of a systematic approach to instructional design that is attentive to the needs of the learner and reliant on accurate information to create effective educational experiences. 

Components of the instructional design plan

The diagram illustrates a layered structure with the following components, from the outermost to the innermost layer: 

  • Planning
  • Revision
  • Instructional Problems
  • Learner Characteristics
  • Task Analysis
  • Instructional Objectives
  • Content Sequencing
  • Instructional Strategies
  • Designing the Message
  • Development of Instruction
  • Evaluation Instruments
  • Formative Evaluation
  • Project Management

 The surrounding text reaffirms that instructional design focuses on improving individual performance and considers audience characteristics during the learner analysis. The strategies and delivery methods are tailored to the individual needs of the target audience, focusing on what the learner needs to master to solve a problem. 

Premise 7 states that there is no single best way to design instruction, acknowledging that the instructional design process can minimize reliance on intuition or trial and error in planning. However, it also notes that the instructional design process is not a point of universal agreement and can be approached in various ways. 

The debate surrounding the ADDIE model in instructional design.

It suggests that although ADDIE is one of the most frequently mentioned terms in the field, there is no definitive ADDIE model. Critics might say there are various iterations of it, but there is no single, fully elaborated model known as ADDIE. 

The text explains that the term ADDIE is essentially a colloquial label for a systematic approach to instructional systems development, encompassing Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. This approach does not originate from a single author but represents a tradition around the 1980s that embodies elements from various models sharing common characteristics. 

Furthermore, the origin of the term is unclear, but the underlying concepts can be traced back to models developed for the U.S. armed forces in the 1970s. For example, the Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development (IPISD) included detailed procedures that share similarities with what later would be associated with ADDIE. 

The text also mentions Leslie Briggs’ 1970 model, which predates and contains ideas similar to the IPISD without using the ADDIE acronym. Some authors are now attempting to retroactively create an ADDIE model because of its popularity, taking the five-stage outline and expanding upon it, despite the lack of a singular, original model. 

The image provides an overview of a design model used in instructional design, which involves answering four key questions that are fundamental in the planning elements of any instructional design model: 

  1. For whom is the program developed? This involves identifying the characteristics of the learners or trainees.
  2. What do you want the learners or trainees to learn or demonstrate? This relates to setting clear objectives.
  3. How is the subject content or skill best learned? This question is about determining the most effective instructional strategies.
  4. How do you determine the extent to which learning is achieved? This concerns the evaluation procedures to be used.

These components—learners, objectives, methods, and evaluation—form the interrelated framework for systematic instructional planning. The text suggests that these four components make up an entire instructional design plan when combined with additional components, such as the context in which the learner learns and works. Together, they form a complete instructional design model. The following paragraphs in the book (not shown in the image) presumably describe these elements in detail. 

Initial steps in addressing instructional problems

 Venn diagram with four overlapping circles labeled

  • Learners,
  • Methods,
  • Objectives, and
  • Evaluation.

 This visual represents how these components are interconnected and essential to the instructional design process.

 Instructional Problems: The first step in the process involves identifying the client’s or the performance problem’s need. If the need can be addressed instructionally, the designer proceeds with the project. If a non-instructional solution is required, the designer may refer the problem to other specialists or work with a team to find the most appropriate solution.

  • Learner and Context: This part involves analyzing the characteristics of the target audience, including their reading level, background knowledge, and assumptions. The analysis depends on the problem and the experience. For instance, a fifth-grade teacher may focus on students’ scores on benchmark tests, while a designer for an accounting firm may consider the learners’ work experience in the field.
  • Task Analysis: Described as one of the most crucial components of the process, task analysis helps determine the knowledge and procedures learners need to master the objectives. This step involves identifying different techniques for analyzing various types of content.

The text emphasizes the importance of understanding both the learners and the context in which they operate to design effective instructional materials. 

Steps in the instructional design process: 

Instructional Objectives Instructional objectives detail what the learner must master. They serve as a guide for designing the instruction and for developing means to assess learner performance. Objectives provide a map and ensure that the instruction is focused on solving the performance problem. 

Content Sequencing The order of information presentation is crucial for helping the learner understand and learn the material. While following the sequence defined by the task analysis is an option, sometimes reordering the information can lead to more efficient and effective learning. 

Instructional Strategies This part is viewed as creative, involving the design of innovative ways to present information so that learners can integrate the new information with what they already understand. It includes a variety of approaches, from simple analogies to complex simulations. 

Designing the Message Designing the message involves creating the pattern of words and pictures to communicate with learners. It’s a deliberate process that guides how words and pictures are used within the instructional strategies to focus the learner’s attention, using typographical elements and graphics to enhance readability and understanding. 

Development of the Instruction After completing the analysis and design phases, this step involves creating the actual instructional materials, such as videos, web pages, print materials, or audiotapes, ready for delivery to the target audience. 

Components and processes within the instructional design model: 

Evaluation Instruments Evaluation instruments are tools used to assess the learner’s mastery of the objectives. The complexity of these tools can range from simple tests to more complex assessments like portfolios showcasing exemplary work over a period of time.

 Ongoing Processes The image notes that there are eight processes within the instructional design project that are ongoing throughout the life of an instructional design project. These include planning and project management, as well as support services.

 Planning and Project Management This process involves varying degrees of complexity and planning based on the project’s scope. Project management includes scheduling and managing the project’s development.

 Support Services The size and scope of the project will determine the resources that are essential for its success. Support services may include typographers, graphic artists, scriptwriters, video producers, or programmers, all of whom collaborate on the development and production of the instructional materials.

 Formative Evaluation and Revision This process involves evaluating and revising the instructional design at multiple stages. Starting with problem identification, formative evaluations ensure the identified problems are correctly addressed, strategies are effective, and the instruction quality is high. Based on reviews and evaluations, revisions can be made to improve the instruction.

 Aspects of the instructional design process and  key roles involved in it:

 Implementation This stage focuses on the practical application of the instruction. During the design phase, careful planning for implementation is crucial to ensure the smooth rollout of the instructional program.

 Summative Evaluation After the instruction is implemented, a summative evaluation is conducted to assess the effectiveness of the instructional materials when they are used as planned.

 Confirmative Evaluation This is a long-term evaluation process to determine if the instruction remains appropriate over time, especially once training courses have been institutionalized and the initial problems they addressed are no longer present.

 Who’s Who in the Instructional Design Process Roles and responsibilities within the instructional design process are highlighted:

 Instructional Designer Responsible for carrying out and coordinating the planning work and managing all aspects of the instructional design process, including the primary responsibility for designing the instruction.

  • Subject-Matter Expert (SME) 

Importance of philosophy in the field of instructional design 

Our philosophies shape how we think and do, influencing our beliefs, values, and attitudes. This, in turn, affects how we interpret situations and make decisions, particularly in instructional design. 

Those in the field of instructional technology will encounter core values such as: 

  1. The systems approach is the field’s foundation.
  2. Learning is a change in knowledge or behavior.
  3. Achievement is the desired outcome of the instructional design process. 

It discusses how philosophies help make sense of these core values. Sometimes, people get so wrapped up in daily activities that they don’t consider their underlying philosophies, even though these philosophies are crucial for guiding their decisions and actions. 

Systems Approach: Line, Oval, or Something Else? It questions whether the systems approach should be rigid or flexible and encourages considering if it ever makes sense to follow a rigid plan or if it’s better to always plan to follow a flexible process. 

Learning: Internal or External? The text delves into the debate on whether learning is an internal mental process or an external behavior that can be observed. It mentions that there are various beliefs about how learning occurs and that understanding these different perspectives is important for an instructional designer. Learning is sometimes viewed as an active process of constructing knowledge rather than just acquiring it. 

Stuff, Experiences, or Environments? The instructional design process is presented as yielding achievements that align with various orientations, whether focusing on developing instructional materials, structuring meaningful learning experiences, or creating an environment conducive to learning. It suggests that there are no absolutes in this field, and a philosophical perspective might integrate these various orientations. 

Unexamined Instruction: Worth Designing? The section ends by emphasizing the importance of reflecting on one’s philosophy of learning and instruction. It suggests that aligning instructional design solutions with one’s philosophical beliefs about instruction can provide more practical insight into the instructional design process and its impact on the learner. 

Response to critics of instructional design 

Specifically addressing concerns about whether the instructional design process is overly mechanistic rather than humanistic. 

Mechanistic vs. Humanistic Approach: The criticism is that some instructional design (ID) models may seem too rigid or linear, which could potentially discourage creativity and make teaching seem more like a science than an art. The book argues that while some models might exhibit this rigidity, the instructional design process should be flexible, with sequences that are logical and adaptable to the instructional designer’s style, the nature of the subject, and the learner’s needs. 

Instructional Design Model: A figure in the image depicts a typical instructional design model that includes a cyclic process with stages labeled “Topic,” “Objectives,” “Instruction,” “Evaluation,” and points of “Revision.” This illustrates the systematic yet iterative nature of instructional design, implying that while there is a structure, there’s also room for revision and adaptation. 

The text emphasizes that a humanistic approach to instruction recognizes individual learner differences, capabilities, and development stages, and it should be apparent in the instructional design process. Systematic planning in instructional design includes examining learner characteristics and readiness levels, and applying this to the design of individualized or self-paced instruction to meet the unique needs of each learner.

Concerns about creativity in teaching and the focus of instructional design outcomes 

Creativity in Teaching: The text argues that instructional design does not discourage creativity in teaching. Rather, like art, it involves creatively applying a range of widely accepted design elements (like unity, emphasis, balance, etc.) to create an effective and engaging instructional approach. Instructional design is seen as an opportunity to imagine and innovate within the framework of these design principles, allowing for a variety of approaches depending on how the instructional designer applies the process. It suggests that two instructors might design different plans for the same subject and objectives, both encouraging creativity and satisfying student learning. 

Focus on Immediate vs. Long-Term Learning Outcomes: The text addresses the misconception that instructional design primarily focuses on immediate, low-level learning outcomes. It states that while some designs, especially those based on behavioral approaches, might focus on narrow, immediate outcomes, instructional design can also facilitate higher-level learning such as analysis, synthesis, and problem-solving. It emphasizes that instructional design includes procedures for both directly and indirectly evaluating post-course behavior and long-term application outcomes, thereby acknowledging the importance of long-term learning goals in the instructional design process. 

Common criticism of instructional design regarding time consumption.

 Time Concerns in Instructional Design: The criticism is that instructional design takes too long. The response to this criticism is that the time it takes is relative and dependent on various factors. Comparisons are made to scenarios such as changing tires at a local garage versus a pit crew at the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race. The argument is that not all instructional design tasks require the speed of a pit crew, but the time invested should correspond to the complexity and life cycle of the training program.

 Efficiency and Value: The text suggests that a simple task might be addressed quickly, while a more complex field service staff training might require a more prolonged and in-depth design process due to the complexity and long-term application of the training.

 Investment in Instructional Design: Instructional design is seen as an investment of time and resources, and while it might be costly, it is argued that it is worthwhile for long-term benefits. An example given is an instructional design course that took six months to complete, which was seen as worthwhile due to its long-term effectiveness.

 The section concludes by suggesting that while instructional design does require an investment of time, it should not be seen merely as a cost but as a valuable investment, especially when instruction is the correct solution to a problem or when the outcomes justify the resources invested. The answers to critics are meant to offer unconventional perspectives and encourage moving beyond passive learning to more effective instructional strategies. 

Summary of key points regarding the instructional design (ID) process: 

  1. Instructional design can shorten training time and focus training on specific performance issues, leading to significant cost savings.
  2. It is applicable across various contexts that focus on improving human performance, including education, business, healthcare, and the military.
  3. A complete ID plan consists of nine elements in a flexible configuration and includes formative, summative, and confirmative evaluations.
  4. Various expressions are synonymous with instructional design in the literature and practice.
  5. The ID process is systematic, starts at the course development level, and varies in application by different designers, producing equally effective learning interventions.
  6. It can benefit program managers, administrators, instructional designers, instructors, and learners.
  7. Roles in the ID process include the instructional designer, instructor, subject-matter expert, and evaluator.
  8. Criticisms of the ID process address concerns about it being too mechanistic, discouraging creativity, and focusing too much on low-level, immediate outcomes rather than long-term goals. The textbook emphasizes approaches counter to these criticisms.
  9. Asking questions during all phases of the ID process is crucial for directing thinking toward decisions.

Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kemp, J. E., & Kalman, H. (2010). Designing Effective Instruction (6th edition). Wiley.

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